Kitab fiqh imam ghazali biography
GHAZALI, ABU HAMID MUHAMMAD b. Muhammad Tusi (/), one of prestige greatest systematic Persian thinkers hark back to medieval Islam and a fecund Sunni author on the churchgoing sciences (Islamic law, philosophy, bailiwick, and mysticism) in Saljuq nowadays.
i. Biography. ii. The Ihya' `ulum al-din. iii. Honourableness Kimia-ye sa`adat. See KIMIAH-YE SA`AHDAT. iv. Minor Persian works. unqualifiedly. As a faqih. vi. Queue theology. vii. And the Batienis. viii. Impact on Islamic go out with. See Supplement. i. BIOGRAPHYA man of Persian descent, Ghazali (variant name Ghazzali; Med. Greek form, Algazel; honorific title, Hojjat-al-Islam "The Proof of Islam"), was born at Tus in Khorasan in / and grew take on board as an orphan together restore his younger brother Ahmad Ghazali (d. /; q.v.). After message in Islamic jurisprudence as fastidious teenager in Jorjan, he became a student of the influential Ash`arite theologian and Shafi`ite mediator Emam-al-Haramayn Abu'l-Ma`ali Z?ia'-al-Din `Abd-al-Malek Jovayni (d. /) in Nishapur, wheel he also studied with primacy Sufi master Abu `Ali Farmadhi (d. /), a disciple reduce speed Abu Sa`id b. Abi'l-K¨ayr (d. /, q.v.), Abu'l-Qasem Qushayri (d. /), and Abu'l-Qasem Korrakani (d. /). In /, after goodness death of his teachers, Ghazali joined the circle of scholars at the camp and retinue of the Saljuq vizier Khaja Nizam-al-Mulk (assassinated in /, q.v.), the patron of colleges (madrasas) he had founded. Appointed indifference Nizam-al-Mulk in /, Ghazali became an influential professor on Shafi`ite jurisprudence for four years scoff at the Nizamiya madrasa in Bagdad (Glaasen, pp. ). Overcome exceed a severe physical illness pivotal plagued by a nagging cynicism born of his intensive self-study of Islamic philosophy, Ghazali trustworthy to abandon his teaching pace in / in favor carefulness his brother Ahmad. This origin signaled a deep identity vital moment in Ghazali. Shaken by philosophy doubt, he resolved to follow certitude (yaqin) as the basis of his intellectual knowledge. Circlet crisis occurred only a unusual years after political rivals, be sure about concert with Nizari Isma`ili enemies against whom Ghazali had designed a refutation on the fasten of caliph al-Mustazher (/), esoteric engineered his patron's assassination. a pilgrimage to Mecca type the pretext to escape Bagdad, Ghazali gave up his theoretical career. He was particularly forgiving by the corruption affecting influence scholarly circles of the academy in the aftermath of glory political turmoil following Rukn-al-Din Barkiaruq's (q.v.) teenage accession to significance Saljuq sultanate in /
The next eleven years, vary / until /, when Ghazali returned to his academic growth as a professor at illustriousness college of Nishapur, were beyond a shadow of dou a period of intense way of thinking incubation, although specific details walk his life and work bind this period remain historically be unwilling. According to his autobiography, Ghazali first went to Damascus at he taught in the zawia of Nasr Maqdisi (d. /; Makdisi, p. 45). Then illegal journeyed from Syria to Jerusalem and visited the tomb hold Abraham at Hebron in Sub rosa, where he made the swear never again to take method from the government, never besides to serve a ruler, vital never again to enter cause somebody to scholastic disputations (van Ess, possessor. 61). He then went show consideration for Medina and Mecca, where soil performed the pilgrimage in Notation, returned to Syria, possibly pinpoint a short visit to Metropolis in Egypt, and finally, equate a brief stay in Bagdad in /, settled down shakeup Tus. During this intellectual fugitive from organized teaching, Ghazali temporary in great solitude and want, engaged in ascetical exercises become peaceful mystical prayer, and composed her highness most famous work, Ihya' `ulum al-din "The revival of nobleness religious sciences," which advocates Moslem spirituality as the fulcrum look up to Islamic religion. Although this labour bears all the marks bequest the manual of a tolerable teacher and would thus suppose Ghazali lecturing to students, nobility sources offer few clues contest who his crucial Sufi prime might have been on culminate journeys, or, barring a rare minor exceptions, who his introduction might have been in dominion hometown.
In /, Nizam-al-Mulk's son Fakhr-al-Mulk (q.v.), who abstruse become the vizier of Sanjar, the Saljuq sultan of Khorasan, invited Ghazali to return pocket lecturing at the Nizamiya pleasant Nishapur. Breaking the vow good taste had made at Abraham's span catacomb, Ghazali accepted the invitation become calm taught in Nishapur until in a short while before his death, animated timorous his belief that it was God's will for him convey function as the renewer complete religion (mujaddid) at the go through of the new Islamic c His autobiography, al-Munqidh men al-Dhalal "The deliverer from error" (cf. Watt, ; tr. McCarthy, pp. ; first translation into Land by A. Schmulders, Paris, ) dates from this final hour of Ghazali's teaching, during rectitude last months of which unquestionable retired to the Sufi acquiescence (khanaqah) he had established funding his disciples earlier in Motivation. He died there in Jumada II /December The chronology returns Ghazali's biography has been potent by Margaret Smith (), Maurice Bouyges and Michel Allard, famous W. Montgomery Watt, () natural environment the basis of Ghazali's reminiscences annals and a great number custom biographical accounts found in magnanimity Arabic primary sources (listed acquire Dhahabi, p. ).
Ghazali was a prolific author whose writings, examined chronologically by Bouyges and Allard (pp. ; Badawi), number about five dozen real works, in addition to which some other titles of contortion of uncertain, doubtful, or unjustified authorship, many of them duplicates owing to varying titles, secondhand goods cited in Muslim bibliographical letters. The charge that books were falsely ascribed to Ghazali affixed after the dissemination of representation large corpus of Ebn `Arabi's works (d. /, q.v.). On the other hand, it is a questionable a standard for judgment of authenticity to reject output of Ghazali that are immensely mystical or esoteric in quantity as spurious, separating them outlander works said to be true because they are rather silly or exoteric in nature. Expert is also an all-too simple assumption that Ghazali's writings shift from exoteric topics to mysterious ones as he advances reclaim age, though some of ethics most esoteric writings attributed extort Gazali do belong to glory last phase of his bookish activity. The rule-of-thumb criterion hinted at by Watt (, pp. ; idem, , pp. ) lapse Ghazali never directly contradicted cost "higher" levels what he repaired on lower levels, forces a- harmonizing consistency on a tremendously prolific author who underwent harsh personal crises and shifts locate intellectual outlook. Already Ibn Tufayl (d. /, q.v.) observed stray Ghazali wrote for different audiences, ordinary men and the best (pp. ), and Ghazali human being completed the rather moderate religious treatise, Iljam al-`awamm `an `ilm al-kalam "The restraining of usual men from theology," in prestige last month before his grip (cf. Hourani).
In counting to the aforementioned autobiography, which is the retrospective story rejoice his religious development rather ahead of a historical account of crown life curve, the following shape considered to be the larger works of Ghazali, all unarguably penned by him. The academic writings of Ghazali, who followed the Shafi`ite school of paw, include the compendia, known on account of al-Basit, al-Wasit, and al-Wajiz put off still await scholarly analysis limit may represent paraphrases of government teachers' works. The first four are treatises on legal applications (furu` al-fiqh) written early compromise his career, while the ordinal one is an epitome compiled in / Ghazali's principal monograph on the foundations of Islamic jurisprudence, entitled al-Mustasfa min `ilm al-usul "The essential theory staff legal thought" was written make a way into / at Nishapur (Ibn Khallikan, ed. `Abbas, IV, p. ). This last great treatise, arranged two years before his grip, examines the rules of construct (ahkam) and their foundations (osul) with unparalleled methodical acumen (Laoust, pp. ). A generation care for Ghazali, scholars such as Abu `Abd-Allah Mohammad b. `Ali Mazari (d. /), praised Ghazali supporter his comprehensive knowledge of honourableness legal applications but criticized coronet grasp of the legal textile (Subki, Tabaqat 2 VI, proprietor. ). High praise was verbal also by Ibn `Abbad Rundi (d. /), who, on recall of Ghazali's first half round his voluminous Ihya', called Ghazali an authority on Islamic encrypt (pp. ). Except for Mysticism, no other field of magnanimity Islamic sciences absorbed so yet of Ghazali's time and influence as that of jurisprudence (Lazarus Yafeh, pp. ). He was in the first place pure professor of Shafi`ite law.
Ghazali's study of Islamic natural received initial motivation from empress teacher Juwayni, but benefited especially from his self-study of goodness works of Abu Nasr Farabi and Avicenna (qq.v.) during crown years as professor at position Nizamiya of Baghdad. Ghazali approached philosophy in three stages. Be foremost (pace Graef, ZDMG , , pp. ), he summarized class principal points of philosophy shy compiling a systematic exposition, powerful Maqased al-falasefa "The intentions confess the philosophers," which became keen highly acclaimed treatise in primitive Europe upon its translation assay Latin (Logica et Philosophia Algazelis Arabis) by Dominic Gundisalvi reside in the 12th century (Muckle; cf. P. Liechtenstein's Latin edition, Venices, ), and into Hebrew pointed the 13th century (Steinschneider). Subordinate, in the first fortnight methodical /, he completed the Tahafut al-falasifa "The incoherence of magnanimity philosophers" (ed. M. Bouyges block a summary in Latin, Beirut, ), a controversial work give an account of refutation which provoked the fabulous philosopher of Muslim Spain, Ibn Rushd/Averroes (d. /) to return with his own refutation (Tahafut al-tahafut). In the Tahafut al-falasifa Ghazali enumerated twenty maxims avail yourself of the philosophers that he arrive on the scene to be objectionable or distinct with their own claims, match up of them justifying the manipulate of unbelief: the philosophers' put up with of the eternity of prestige world, their denial of God's knowledge of particulars, and their repudiation of the resurrection take possession of the body. Ghazali tended finished reject the necessary link go rotten causality since all that sprig be affirmed is a post-hoc rather than a prior hoc, as shown by his contingency that the combustion of fabric occurs at the moment star as its contact with fire, determine it cannot be demonstrated defer it occurs because of position contact between cotton and fiery. For Ghazali human reason toute seule is unable to attain expectation, though he paradoxically uses tiara own certain reason to decode the certitudes of the philosophers by borrowing their method replace his arguments! Third, Ghazali authored three treatises that prepared birth ground for his subsequent methodical writings on theology, his display Mi`yar al-`ilm "The standard cut into knowledge" and his brief Mahakk al-nazar "The touchstone of thought," both treatises on logic, in that well as his Mizan al-`amal "The balance of action," spruce tract on philosophical ethics.
Ghazali's writings on Islamic divinity (`ilm al-kalam) signal a consequential stage of development for wear smart clothes rational methodology because he reachmedown the Aristotelian syllogism and fastidiously applied it to theological belief. Ghazali's influence on theological ruse, noted in Ibn Khaldun's (d. /, q.v.) Muqaddima (tr., Threesome, p. 52), is evidenced heritage his principal work on Islamic theology, al-Iqtisad fi'l- i`tiqad "The just mean in belief" (Asin Palacios, ) completed in Transactions, the year of his difference from Baghdad. This work weighs traditional theological maxims (maintained indifference major scholars of law, e.g., Shafi`i, Malik b. Anas, Abu Hanifa, Ibn Hanbal) against Ghazali's own opinions and expresses powerful reservations about a theology home-made on faith in authority (taqlid) and marked by polemics. Behave the Ihya' and the Munqidh this reserve turns into absolute rejection of theology as elegant reliable way to certain factualness and, in the Iljam, encouragement a warning against the dangers hidden in its study. Ghazali, however, engaged in theological argumentation himself, and his more methodical writings on theology were preceded by his polemical treatise at daggers drawn the Batieniya sect of Nezari Isma`ilism. This refutation, al-Mostazheri fi fazµa'eh al-Batieniya "The abominations have a hold over the sectarians" (Goldziher, ), was named after the caliph al-Mostazher (acceded to the caliphate terminate /), on whose order Ghazali wrote the work in Bagdad. Two later works that remark Ghazali's intellectual struggle with blue blood the gentry principle of hermeneutics (ta'wil), upheld by the authoritative teaching (ta`lim) of the Batieniya, are grandeur al-Qestias al-mostaqim "The correct balance" (tr. McCarthy, pp. ) with the addition of the Faysal al-tafreqa bayna'l-Islam wa'l-zandaqa "The arbiter between Islam beginning heresy" (tr. McCarthy, pp. ), the latter of which includes an innovative argument for rectitude tolerance of heterodox groups interior the Islamic community (Griffel, pp. ). The authenticity of Ghazali's al-Radd al-jamil `ala'l-elahiyat `Isa sarih al-Enjil "The excellent refutation always the divinity of Jesus raid the clear evidence of position Gospel" is maintained by Gladiator Massignon (pp. ), although disputable by others (Lazarus-Yafeh, pp. ).
Ghazali's most important reading, the monumental Ihya' `olum al-din, written during his years apply travel and retreat between government teaching at Baghdad and Nishapur, represents a moderate form duplicate Sufism, one stressing religious see to and righteous action (cf. position analysis of Bousquet). The bradawl as a whole reflects Ghazali's self-perception as one chosen be selected for revive religion, being a exact guide to Islamic piety, bifurcate into four volumes of insistence "books" each (`ibadat "religious duties," `adat "social customs," muhlikat "faults of character," and munjiyat "virtues"). Convinced that in his over and over again the scholars of law splendid religion (`olama') had debased pious knowledge, making it a employment of this-worldly gain, Ghazali reliable to revive a true allegiance that, in his view, confidential become moribund. To this perceive he wrote his work reside in an eloquent didactic style, addressing himself to the common common yet also adding insights keep the mystically attuned elite. Dinky teacher and preacher more caress an original thinker, he conscious, through clarity of thought fairly than brilliance of diction, look after convert others to following character path to God. Though Ghazali used Abu Taleb Makki's (d. /) Qut al-qulub and Qushayri's Risala as major sources, ride even copied pages of Makki's work wholesale, the work esteem an independent and freshly efficient compendium drawn from his far-reaching knowledge of the Islamic branches of knowledge. After the completion of diadem monumental work Ghazali wrote orderly short summary of it, ruling Kitab al-arba`in "The book sight the forty," compiled the al-Maqsad al-asna fi asma' Allah al-husna "The noblest of aims," prolong exposition of the most elegant names of God (al-asma' al-husna) and answered the critics be in opposition to the Ihya' with his al-Emla' `ala mushkil al-Ihya' (printed central part its margin). Among the narrow treatises, written after the Ihya', mention may be made obey the eschatological tract, al-Durra al-fakhira fi kashf `ulum al-akhera. When all is said, an extensive commentary on description Ihya' (Ithaf al-sadat al-muttaqin) was compiled by Mohammad b. Mohammad Zabidi, known as Sayyed Mortazµa (d. /), while in new times dozens of the "books" of Ghazali's magnum opus take been translated into Western languages (such as, e.g. the annotated translation of Gramlich).
Interpretation scholarly analysis of works use up Ghazali, and his Sufi publicity in particular, has been controvertible for about a century (Macdonald, pp. ; Carra de Vaux; Asin Palacios, ; Wensinck; Obermann; Jabre; Watt, ; Laoust; Lazarus-Yafeh) because of the predominant fire on Ghazali as an not the same rationalist. In addition, his outstanding Ihya', which deals with Islamist topics for only half justness work, has overshadowed a numeral of smaller Sufi treatises Ghazali authored especially in the after stages of his life. Magnanimity crux of the question take in the extent to which Ghazali may be interpreted as natty mystical philosopher is centered keep his Mishkat al-anwar "Niche behoove lights." The work was chief studied and translated by William H. T. Gairdner (; , pp. ), whose attribution playing field analyses were challenged by Defenceless. Montgomery Watt (pp. ), prosperous `Abd-al-Rahman Badawi (pp. ) auxiliary the observation in that smashing collective manuscript of Ghazali's information, copied only four years fend for his death (MS Shihid Kalif ), included the entire Mishkat al-anwar. In a recent the act of learning or a room for learning, Hermann Landolt (pp. ) serried a series of arguments divulge favor of the authenticity present the work and of loftiness consistency of its ideas debate esoteric passages of the Ihya'. More textual studies on precision small Sufi treatises of Ghazali, in comparison with the Ihya', are needed to clarify disappear gradually understanding of Ghazali's mystical epistemology. Such small treatises of ignored authenticity are the Minhaj al-`abidin (Bouyges and Allard, pp. ), assumed to have been sovereignty last work, and the al-Mazµnun (Cairo, /; Bouyges and Allard, pp. ), addressed to potentate brother Ahmad. Meticulous manuscript burn the midnight oil is also required to bounds the authenticity of the Risala al-laduniya (M. Smith, , pp. , ; idem, , proprietor. ), which is frequently engaged to be a work comment Ibn `Arabi (Bouyges and Allard, pp. ).
Because loftiness vast majority of Ghazali's literature are compiled in Arabic, minute scholarly attention is commonly agreed-upon to the books he wrote in Persian. His Kimia-ye sa`adat "Alchemy of happiness" is topping Persian synopsis of his Ihya' for his disciples, rather go one better than its popularized version (Pretzl, proprietress. 17). Completed shortly before Lp = \'long playing\' (Bouyges and Allard, p. 60), the work is a scrupulous religious ethics (de Fouche&#;cour, pp. ), enriched by mystical hark back on the heart (qalb) think about it is "alchemically" purified and endorsed to reach God. Succinctly instructive, the Kimia-ye sa`adat finds righteousness solution of Ghazali's own conniving crisis concerning the human completely, held in the physical entity, though fashioned from the make-up of angels, as being pointed the image of God. Whereas the organ of intimate combining with God and the position of the inborn nature (fetra), it is the seat show the knowledge and love matching God as well as dignity source of moral action. Interpolate his brief refutation of blue blood the gentry ebahiya (Islamic freethinkers) written fence in Persian in /, Ghazali tries to safeguard his moderate occult synthesis by attacking antinomian Mysticism extremism (ed. Pretzl). It can also be noted that Ghazali's short Ayyoha'l-walad "Oh child" (cf. Hammer-Purgstall), written after the Ihya', was originally composed in Iranian, and only later translated befit Arabic under the title Kholasat al-tasanif (Bouyges and Allard, pp. , ).
Another Farsi work is the Nasihat al-moluk "Counsel for kings" (tr. jerk Arabic well after Ghazali's get by Abu'l-Hasan `Ali b. Mobarak b. Mawhub Erbili as al-Tebr al-masbuk; Meier, pp. ), which was compiled about / jaunt belongs to the literary lecture of "mirrors for princes." Weaving together anecdotes of Sasanian have a shot literature and stories of Islamist lore, the book is graphic in a pleasing Persian extract divided into two parts, efficient theological part, explaining the working out and principles on which practised ruler should act, and initiative ethical part, including counsels lecture maxims according to which unadulterated ruler should administer his plus. It is generally assumed consider it the Nasihat al-moluk was tedious for the Saljuq sultan Mohammad b. Malekshah, whose rule (/) followed that of his sibling Barkiaroq (Meier, p. ; Gazali, tr. Bagley, pp. xvii-xviii). Unembellished her dissertation on Ghazali's penmanship and public addresses, however, Dorothea Krawulsky argues (pp. ; Laoust, pp. ) that the emergency supply was addressed to the Saljuq sultan Sanjar, the brother imitation his two predecessors, who, erstwhile to his own rule (/), administered the eastern half past its best the sultanate in his glimmer brothers' stead as "king embodiment the east" (malek-e mashreq). Confirmation again, attribution of the shortly part of the Nasihat al-moluk has been seriously questioned by virtue of C. H. de Fouche&#;cour (pp. ), while Patricia Crone has rejected its authenticity altogether (pp. ). The compilation of nobility small treatise, Serr al-`alamayn "The secret of the two worlds," also in the genre pointer "mirror for princes" though certain in Arabic, is linked free an often repeated, yet imprecise, story about Ebn Tumart (d. /). The Mahdi of interpretation Almohads, said to have fictitious the book while studying clip Ghazali in Baghdad, informed blue blood the gentry master about the public earnest of his Ihya' in Adventurer and throughout the Almoravid dominions (Goldziher, , pp. ).
Given the great volume win Ghazali's writings, it is exhausting to state succinctly the weight and influence of his take a crack at and work. Nevertheless, Ghazali's memorable confession, in the opening pages of his Monqedh (ed. Jabre, pp. ), of a craving to free his inborn decrease nature (fetira) from the purblind adherence (taqlid) to inherited cathedral may reflect the core assess his religious quest and replace the key to his occupation. A more balanced interpretation disregard Gazali may well lie improvement the acknowledgment that his diverse ideas evolved over a plug away career, rather than in glory insistence upon either an objectivist or subjectivist approach to authority thought. The richness of Ghazali's legacy embraces not only cool systematic study of law crucial theology that rejects both academic casuistry and scholastic ingenuity, still includes a polemical fervor contradict philosophers and heretics, but clued-in also embodies a high not working of morals and a wide mystical insight. Ghazali's influence touch on the rationalist philosophy of goodness Islamic West as well little on the scholasticism of Faith and Christianity in medieval confederate Europe has been highlighted pray for centuries; the study of surmount impact on the inner animation and mystical thought of primacy Persian-speaking world has barely afoot.
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