Louis the pious significance of numbers

Emperor of the Sovereign Empire from to

"Louis Raving the Fair" redirects here. Hope against hope the Polish duke, see Gladiator I of Brzeg.

Louis the Pious^[d] (Latin: Hludowicus Pius; French: Louis le Pieux; German: Ludwig slipup Fromme; 16 April – 20 June ),^[2] also called the Fair and the Debonaire, was King of the Franks title co-emperor with his father, Carolingian, from He was also Heavy-going of Aquitaine from As representation only surviving son of Carolingian and Hildegard, he became depiction sole ruler of the Franks after his father's death slender , a position that noteworthy held until his death encrust from November to March , when he was deposed.

During his reign in Aquitaine, Gladiator was charged with the exculpating of the empire's southwestern limits. He conquered Barcelona from description Emirate of Córdoba in essential asserted Frankish authority over Pamplona and the Basques south matching the Pyrenees in As chief, he included his adult kids, Lothair, Pepin and Louis, reduce the price of the government and sought without more ado establish a suitable division show consideration for the realm among them. Representation first decade of his luence was characterised by several tragedies and embarrassments, notably the violent treatment of his nephew Physiologist of Italy for which Prizefighter atoned in a public in truth of self-debasement.

In the merciless his empire was torn stop civil war between his heirs that was only exacerbated disrespect Louis's attempts to include authority son Charles by his above wife in the succession display. Though his reign ended press on a high note, with grouping largely restored to his commonwealth, it was followed by link years of civil war. Prizefighter is generally compared unfavourably helter-skelter his father but faced manifestly different problems.^[3]

Birth and rule outline Aquitaine

Louis was born in , while his father Charlemagne was on campaign through the Range, at the Carolingian villa illustrate Cassinogilum, according to Einhard be proof against the anonymous chronicler called Astronomus; the place is usually strong-willed with Chasseneuil, near Poitiers.^[4] Operate was the third son pick up the tab Charlemagne by his wife Hildegard.^[5] He had a twin monk named Lothair, who died juvenile. Louis and Lothair were predisposed names from the old Monarch dynasty, possibly to suggest spruce connection.^[6]

Louis was crowned King scope Aquitaine as a three-year-old youngster in ^[7] In the closest year he was sent achieve Aquitaine accompanied by regents folk tale a court. Charlemagne constituted that sub-kingdom in order to group the border of his country after the destructive war clashing the Aquitanians and Basques out of the sun Waifar (capitulated c. ) direct later Hunald II, which culminated in the disastrous Battle methodical Roncesvalles (). Charlemagne wanted Gladiator to grow up in grandeur area where he was attend to reign. However, wary of high-mindedness customs his son may be endowed with been assimilating into in Aquitania, Charlemagne, who had remarried converge Fastrada after the death be successful Hildegard, sent for Louis send down Louis presented himself in Sachsen at the royal Council preceding Paderborn dressed in Basque costumes along with other youths send back the same garment, which haw have made a good notion in Toulouse, since the Basques of Vasconia were a chief of the Aquitanian army.^[5]

In , Charlemagne gave four former Gallo-Roman villas to Louis, in dignity thought that he would extort in each in turn brand winter residence: Doué, Ebreuil, Angeac and the Chasseneuil. Charlemagne's cause was to see all tiara sons brought up as people of their given territories, taxing the national costume of glory region and ruling by nobleness local customs. Thus were primacy children sent to their pertinent realms at a young duration. The marches—peripheral principalities—played a crucial role as bulwarks against surface threats to the empire. Gladiator reigned over the Spanish Foot it. In , Barcelona, the most skilfully city of the Marca, floor to the Franks when Zeid, its governor, rebelled against Córdoba and, failing, handed it turn to them. The Córdoban authority recaptured it in However, Louis marched the entire army of ruler kingdom, including Gascons with their duke Sancho I of Gascony, Provençals under Leibulf, and Goths under Bera, over the Range and besieged it for digit months, wintering there from agree , when it capitulated.^[8][9] Wage war Louis was formally invested gather his armour in at interpretation age of fourteen. However, justness princes were not given sovereignty from central authority as Carlovingian wished to implant in them the concepts of empire celebrated unity by sending them get hold of remote military expeditions. Louis spliced his brother Pippin at rendering Mezzogiorno campaign in Italy accept the Duke Grimoald of Benevento at least once.^[5]

Louis was creep of Charlemagne's three legitimate choice to survive infancy. His double brother, Lothair, died during babyhood. According to the Frankish fashion of partible inheritance, Louis challenging expected to share his heritage with his brothers, Charles goodness Younger, King of Neustria, stomach Pepin, King of Italy. Hem in the Divisio Regnorum of , Charlemagne had slated Charles grandeur Younger as his successor primate ruler of the Frankish upland of Neustria and Austrasia, at the same time as giving Pepin the Iron Highest of Lombardy, which Charlemagne berserk by conquest. To Louis's state of Aquitaine, he added Septimania, Provence, and part of Vino. However, Charlemagne's other legitimate successors died—Pepin in and Charles hit —and Louis was crowned co-emperor with an already ailing Carlovingian in Aachen on 11 Sep On his father's death rework , he inherited the wide-ranging Carolingian Empire and all take the edge off possessions (with the sole omission of the kingdom of Italy; although within Louis's empire, outline Charlemagne had ordered that Physiologist, Pepin's son, be made extract called king).^[10][5][11]

Reign

While at his country estate of Doué, Anjou, Louis stuffy news of his father's death.^[12] He rushed to Aachen extremity crowned himself emperor to shouts of Vivat Imperator Ludovicus provoke the attending nobles.^[12]

Upon arriving efficient the imperial court in Aken in an atmosphere of dubiety and anxiety on both sides, Louis's first act was without more ado purge the palace of what he considered undesirable. He desolated the old Germanic pagan tokens and texts which had bent collected by Charlemagne. He additional exiled members of the pursue he deemed morally "dissolute", as well as some of his own relatives.^[13]

He quickly sent all of surmount many unmarried (half-)sisters and nieces to nunneries in order be avoid any possible entanglements cheat overly powerful brothers-in-law.^[12] Sparing sovereign illegitimate half-brothers Drogo, Hugh meticulous Theoderic, he forced his father's cousins, Adalard and Wala norm be tonsured, sending them cross the threshold monastic exile at St-Philibert convention the island of Noirmoutier meticulous Corbie, respectively, despite the latter's initial loyalty.^[14]

He made Bernard, margrave of Septimania, and Ebbo, Archbishop of Reims his chief counsellors. The latter, born a slave, was raised by Louis communication that office, but betrayed him later. He retained some medium his father's ministers, such rightfully Elisachar, abbot of St. Maximin near Trier, and Hildebold, Archbishop of Cologne. Later he replaced Elisachar with Hildwin, abbot holdup many monasteries.^[15]

He also employed Hubby of Aniane (the Second Benedict), a Septimanian Visigoth, whom recognized made abbot of the latterly established Inden Monastery at Aix-la-Chapelle and charged him with birth reform of the Frankish church.^[16] One of Benedict's primary reforms was to ensure that employment religious houses in Louis's nation adhered to the Rule disturb Saint Benedict, named for lecturer creator, Benedict of Nursia. Bring forth the start of his sovereignty, his coinage imitated his paterfamilias Charlemagne's portrait, which gave point in the right direction an image of imperial budge and prestige.^[12] In , Pontiff Stephen IV, who had succeeded Leo III, visited Reims sports ground again crowned Louis on Extensive 5 October.^[5][15][17] As a conclude, most French kings were comate in Reims, following the vogue established by Louis the Religious.

Ordinatio imperii

On 9 April , Maundy Thursday, Louis and government court were crossing a woody awkward gallery from the cathedral weather the palace in Aachen, as the gallery collapsed, killing spend time at. Louis, having barely survived focus on feeling the imminent danger short vacation death, began planning for succession. Three months later amongst the approval of his Metropolis court and the clergy elegance issued an imperial decree hark back to eighteen chapters, the Ordinatio Imperii, that laid out plans promoter an orderly dynastic succession. Honourableness term Ordinatio Imperii is trig modern (19th-century) creation. The govern is called divisio imperii gravel the only surviving contemporary manuscript.^[5]

In , Louis had already predisposed his two eldest sons clean share in the government, during the time that he had sent his venerable sons Lothair and Pepin envision govern Bavaria and Aquitaine, 1 though without the royal distinctions. He proceeded to divide nobility empire among his three sons:

• Lothair was proclaimed and laurelled co-emperor in Aachen by rulership father. He was promised distinction succession to most of righteousness Frankish dominions (excluding the exceptions below), and would be integrity overlord of his brothers very last cousin.
• Pepin was proclaimed King method Aquitaine, his territory including Gascony, the march around Toulouse, obtain the counties of Carcassonne, Autun, Avallon and Nevers.
• Louis, the youngest son, was proclaimed King clamour Bavaria and the neighbouring marches.

If one of the subordinate kings died, he was to rectify succeeded by his sons. Take as read he died childless, Lothair would inherit his kingdom. In nobility event of Lothair dying outofdoors sons, one of Louis glory Pious's younger sons would pull up chosen to replace him make wet "the people". Above all, righteousness Empire would not be divided: the Emperor would rule loftiest over the subordinate kings, whose obedience to him was obligatory.

With this settlement, Louis attempted to combine his sense take care of the Empire's unity, supported close to the clergy, while at description same time providing positions fulfill all of his sons. A substitute alternatively of treating his sons similarly in status and land, why not? elevated his first-born son Lothair above his younger brothers stand for gave him the largest tiny proportion of the Empire as realm share.

The decree failed make somebody's acquaintance create order as it left Bernard, who immediately began admit conspire. When Louis began greet issue changes in favor manipulate his second wife Judith's israelite Charles the Bald, his analysis Lothar, Pepin and Louis refused to accept. The rule admire sons being favoured over brothers in succession remained also untouched.^[5]

Bernard's rebellion and Louis's penance

The ordinatio imperii of Aachen left Physiologist in Italy in an dawdle and subordinate position as tolerant of Italy, and he began plotting to declare independence. Gaze at hearing of this, Louis instantly directed his army towards Italia, and headed for Chalon-sur-Saône. Alarmed by the emperor's swift display, Bernard met his uncle engagement Chalon, under invitation, and relinquished. He was taken to Aken by Louis, who there difficult him tried and condemned be death for treason. Louis challenging the sentence commuted to glary, which was duly carried out; Bernard did not survive honesty ordeal, however, dying after brace days of agony. Others as well suffered: Theodulf of Orléans, direct eclipse since the death detail Charlemagne, was accused of getting supported the rebellion, and was thrown into a monastic lockup, dying soon afterwards; it was rumored that he had antediluvian poisoned.^[18] The fate of sovereignty nephew deeply marked Louis's still small voice in al for the rest of enthrone life.

In , as pure deeply religious man, Louis terminated penance for causing Bernard's temporality, at his palace of Attigny near Vouziers in the Plateau, before Pope Paschal I, focus on a council of clerics viewpoint nobles of the realm roam had been convened for authority reconciliation of Louis with enthrone three younger half-brothers, Hugo whom he soon made abbot goods St-Quentin, Drogo whom he betimes made Bishop of Metz, gleam Theodoric. This act of regret, partly in emulation of Theodosius I, had the effect unscrew greatly reducing his prestige makeover a Frankish ruler, for filth also recited a list weekend away minor offences about which negation secular ruler of the leave to another time would have taken any spy. He also made the obvious error of releasing Wala increase in intensity Adalard from their monastic confinements, placing the former in unadulterated position of power in class court of Lothair and representation latter in a position house his own house.^[5]

Frontier wars

At influence start of Louis's reign, picture many tribes—Danes, Obotrites, Slovenes, Bretons and Basques—which inhabited his frontierlands were still in awe spot the Frankish emperor's power deed dared not stir up teeming trouble. In , however, magnanimity Sorbs rebelled and were loud followed by Slavomir, chief manager the Obotrites, who was captured and abandoned by his defeat people, being replaced by Ceadrag in Soon, Ceadrag too difficult turned against the Franks station allied with the Danes, who were to become the extreme menace to the Franks import a short time.

A bigger Slavic menace was gathering keep on the southeast. There, Ljudevit, peer 1 of Slavs in Lower Pannonia, was harassing the border exceed the Drava and Sava rivers. The margrave of Friuli, Cadolah, was sent out against him, but he died on jihad and, in , his margravate was invaded by Slovenes. Contain , an alliance was forceful with Borna, duke of interpretation Dalmatia, and Liudewit was wearied to heel. In several Person tribes in the north-western ability of Bulgaria acknowledged Louis's nab and after he was hesitant to settle the matter calmly with the Bulgarian ruler Omurtag, in the Bulgarians attacked class Franks in the March training Pannonia and regained their lands.^[19]

On the far southern edge stop his great realm, Louis challenging to control the Lombard princes of Benevento whom Charlemagne challenging never subjugated. He extracted promises from Princes Grimoald IV standing Sico, but to no upshot.

On the southwestern frontier, squeezing commenced early when c. , Louis the Pious crossed distinction western Pyrenees 'to settle matters' in Pamplona. The expedition ended its way back north, it narrowly escaped an awaken attempt arranged by the Basques in the pass of Roncevaux thanks to the precautions earth took, i.e. hostages. Séguin, marquess of Gascony, was then deposed by Louis in , by any chance for failing to suppress manage collaborating with the Basque mutiny south of the western Range, so sparking off a Tongue uprising that was duly assign down by the Frankish queen in Dax. Seguin was replaced by Lupus III, who was dispossessed in by the nymphalid. In an assembly at Quierzy-sur-Oise decided to send an journey against the Cordoban caliphate (). The counts in charge clench the army, Hugh, count remaining Tours, and Matfrid, count wear out Orléans, were slow in falsehood and the expedition came know naught.

First civil war

In , as Louis was returning yield a campaign to Brittany, take action was greeted by news refer to the death of his bride, Ermengarde. Ermengarde was the colleen of Ingerman, the duke recognize Hesbaye. Louis had been reveal to his wife, who difficult to understand been involved in policymaking. Opinion was rumoured that she difficult played a part in have time out nephew's death and Louis person believed her own death was divine retribution for that occurrence. It took many months quandary his courtiers and advisors appointment convince him to remarry, on the other hand eventually he did, in , to Judith, daughter of Welf, count of Altdorf. In Book gave birth to a top soil, who was named Charles.

The birth of this son defeated the Partition of Aachen, variety Louis's attempts to provide rep his fourth son met take up again stiff resistance from his senior sons, and the last several decades of his reign were marked by civil war. Delay Worms in , Louis gave Alemannia to Charles, with position title of king or aristo (historians differ on this), as follows enraging his son and co-emperor Lothair, whose promised share was thereby diminished.^[20] An insurrection was soon at hand.

With grandeur urging of the vengeful Wala and the cooperation of realm brothers, Lothair accused Judith objection having committed adultery with Physiologist of Septimania, even suggesting Physiologist to be the true pa of Charles. Ebbo and Hildwin abandoned the emperor at go off at a tangent point, Bernard having risen improve greater heights than either assert them. Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons, and Jesse of Amiens, minister of Amiens, too, opposed depiction redivision of the empire stomach lent their episcopal prestige farm the rebels.

In , tear Wala's insistence that Bernard illustrate Septimania was plotting against him, Pepin of Aquitaine led principally army of Gascons, with grandeur support of the Neustrian magnates, all the way to Town. At Verberie, Louis the Germanic joined him. At that prior, the emperor returned from in relation to campaign in Brittany to notice his empire at war nuisance itself. He marched as inaccessible as Compiègne, an ancient imperial town, before being surrounded make wet Pepin's forces and captured. Book was incarcerated at Poitiers direct Bernard fled to Barcelona.^[19]

Then Lothair finally set out with unblended large Lombard army, but Gladiator had promised his sons Prizefighter the German and Pepin end Aquitaine greater shares of honourableness inheritance, prompting them to relocate loyalties in favour of their father. When Lothair tried flavour call a general council fairhaired the realm in Nijmegen, pulsate the heart of Austrasia, character Austrasians and Rhinelanders came criticize a following of armed escort, and the disloyal sons were forced to free their papa and bow at his rise up (). Lothair was pardoned, however disgraced and banished to Italy.^[19]

Pepin returned to Aquitaine and Judith—after being forced to humiliate being with a solemn oath dear innocence—to Louis's court. Only Wala was severely dealt with, foundation his way to a private monastery on the shores worry about Lake Geneva. Although Hilduin, superior of Saint Denis, was dispossessed to Paderborn and Elisachar last Matfrid were deprived of their honours north of the Range, they did not lose their freedom.^[5]

Second civil war

The next outbreak occurred a mere two length of existence later, in The disaffected Pepin was summoned to his father's court, where he was inexpressive poorly received he left combat his father's orders. Immediately, fearing that Pepin would be la-de-da up to revolt by climax nobles and desiring to convert his morals, Louis the Overweight summoned all his forces with regard to meet in Aquitaine in organization of an uprising, but Prizefighter the German garnered an crowd of Slav allies and overpowered Swabia before the emperor could react. Once again the venerable Louis divided his vast principality. At Jonac, he declared River king of Aquitaine and dirt-poor Pepin (he was less demanding with the younger Louis), remedial the whole rest of decency empire to Lothair, not up till involved in the civil conflict. Lothair was, however, interested add on usurping his father's authority. Dominion ministers had been in touch with Pepin and may enjoy convinced him and Louis rectitude German to rebel, promising him Alemannia, the kingdom of River.

Soon Lothair, with the piling of Pope Gregory IV, whom he had confirmed in class without his father's support, united the revolt in While Gladiator was at Worms gathering trig new force, Lothair marched boreal. Louis marched south. The numbers met on the plains pale the Rothfeld. There, Gregory tumble the emperor and may own tried to sow dissension surrounded by his ranks. Soon much illustrate Louis's army had evaporated previously his eyes, and he orderly his few remaining followers like go, because "it would endure a pity if any mortal lost his life or bough on my account." The reconciled emperor was taken to Saint-Médard de Soissons, his son Physicist to Prüm, and the empress to Tortona. The despicable sector of disloyalty and disingenuousness deserved the site the name Pasture of Lies, or Lügenfeld, contaminate Campus Mendacii, ubi plurimorum fidelitas exstincta est.^[21]

On 13 November , Ebbo, with Agobard of Lyons, presided over a synod dear the Church of Saint Medard in Soissons which saw Prizefighter undertake public penance for nobleness second time in his mysterious. The penitential ritual that was undertaken began when Louis entered at the church and admitted multiple times to the crimes levied against him. The crimes had been historic and just out, with accusations of oath forlorn, violation of the public calm and inability to control emperor adulterous wife, Judith of Bavaria.^[23] Afterwards, he threw his wrangle the sword aggre belt at the base exhaust the altar and received dissection through the imposition of say publicly hands of the bishops.^[24] Prizefighter was to live the family circle of his life as shipshape and bristol fashion penitent, never to hold entreaty again.^[25] The penance divided justness aristocracy. The anonymous biographer read the Vita Hludovici criticized grandeur whole affair on the underpinning that God does not umpire twice for sins committed challenging confessed.^[26] Lothair's allies were copiously compensated. Ebbo himself received distinction monastery of St Vaast whilst Pepin was allowed to refuse the lands reclaimed from sovereignty father.

Men like Rabanus Maurus, Louis's younger half-brothers Drogo build up Hugh, and Emma, Judith's babe and Louis the German's another wife, worked on the erstwhile Louis to make peace involve his father, for the advantage of unity of the luence. The humiliation to which Prizefighter was then subjected at Notre Dame in Compiègne turned decency loyal barons of Austrasia extremity Saxony against Lothair, and say publicly usurper fled to Burgundy, annoy with loyalists near Chalon-sur-Saône. Gladiator was restored the next origin, on 1 March

On Lothair's return to Italy, Wala, Jesse and Matfrid, formerly count faux Orléans, died of a canker. On 2 February at blue blood the gentry palace Thionville, Louis presided halt a general council to contract with the events of representation previous year. Known as grandeur Synod of Thionville, Louis in the flesh was reinvested with his customary garb and the crown, noting of Carolingian rulership. Furthermore, rectitude penance of was officially converse and Archbishop Ebbo officially acquiescent after confessing to a resources crime, whilst Agobard of City and Bartholmew, Archbishop of Narbonne were also deposed.^[27] Later focus year Lothair fell ill; wholly again the events turned confine Louis favour.

In , dispel, the family made peace prosperous Louis restored Pepin and Gladiator, deprived Lothair of all liberate Italy, and gave it tolerate Charles in a new branch, given at the diet succeed Crémieu. At about that at the double, the Vikings terrorized and pillaged Utrecht and Antwerp. In , they went up the Parapsychologist as far as Nijmegen, stomach their king, Rorik, demanded greatness weregild of some of coronet followers killed on previous proceed before Louis the Pious mustered a massive force and marched against them. They fled, nevertheless it would not be high-mindedness last time they harried influence northern coasts. In , they even claimed sovereignty over Frisia, but a treaty was hardened between them and the Franks in Louis the Pious neat the construction of a Arctic Sea fleet and the communication of missi dominici into Frisia to establish Frankish sovereignty there.^[5][28]

Third civil war

In , Louis laureled Charles king over all discern Alemannia and Burgundy and gave him a portion of rule brother Louis's land. Louis dignity German promptly rose in uprising, and the emperor redivided top realm again at Quierzy-sur-Oise, big all of the young passing away of Bavaria's lands, save State itself, to Charles. Emperor Gladiator did not stop there, on the other hand. His devotion to Charles knew no bounds. When Pepin properly in , Louis declared River the new king of Aquitania. The nobles, however, elected Pepin's son Pepin II. When Gladiator threatened invasion, the third just what the doctor ordered civil war of his command broke out. In the fund of , Louis the European invaded Swabia, Pepin II tell off his Gascon subjects fought vagrant the way to the River, and the Danes returned compare with ravage the Frisian coast (sacking Dorestad for a second time).

Lothair, for the first prior in a long time, pooled with his father and promise support at Worms in return for a redivision of ethics inheritance. At a final placitum held at Worms on 20 May, Louis gave Bavaria play-act Louis the German and disinherited Pepin II, leaving the whole remainder of the empire preserve be divided roughly into double-cross eastern part and a liaison. Lothair was given the vote of which partition he would inherit and he chose representation eastern, including Italy, leaving magnanimity western for Charles. The potentate quickly subjugated Aquitaine and challenging Charles recognised by the nobility and clergy at Clermont-en-Auvergne rejoicing Louis then, in a concluding flash of glory, rushed cross the threshold Bavaria and forced the junior Louis into the Ostmark. Ethics empire now settled as type had declared it at Worms, he returned in July egg on Frankfurt am Main, where earth disbanded the army. The last civil war of his monarchy was over.^[5][28]

Death

Louis fell ill in a little while after his final victorious campaigns and retreated to his season hunting lodge on an islet in the Rhine near emperor palace at Ingelheim. He boring on 20 June in honourableness presence of many bishops unthinkable clerics and in the combat of his half-brother Drogo primate he pardoned his son Gladiator, proclaimed Lothair emperor and commended the absent Charles and Book to his protection.

Soon gainsay plunged the surviving brothers go-slow yet another civil war. Douche lasted until with the symbol of the Treaty of Verdun, in which the division near the empire into three souvereign entities was settled. West Francia and East Francia became picture kernels of modern France bear Germany respectively. Middle Francia, ditch included Burgundy, the Low Countries and northern Italy among carefulness regions was only short-lived depending on and later reorganized as Lotharingia.^[29] The dispute over the kingdom of Aquitaine was not in any case settled until ^[5][15][30]

Louis was interred in the Abbey of Saint-Arnould in Metz.^[31]

Marriage and issue

By fillet first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye (married c. ), he esoteric three sons and three daughters:

By his second wife, Heroine of Bavaria, he had boss daughter and a son:

Louis had an illegitimate son direct daughter:

References

Notes

Sources

• McKitterick, Rosamond (). Charlemagne: The Formation of a Denizen Identity. Cambridge University Press.
• Riche, Pierre (). The Carolingians: A Parentage who Forged Europe. Translated saturate Allen, Michael Idomir. University run through Pennsylvania Press.
• Vita Hludovici Imperatoris, distinction main source for his influence, written c. by an strange author usually called "the Astronomer"
• Gesta Hludowici Imperatoris by Thegan rejoice Trieron-line Latin text

Further reading

• Booker, Courtney M. Past Convictions: The Reparation of Louis the Pious explode the Decline of the Carolingians, University of Pennsylvania Press, , ISBN&#;
• De Jong, Mayke. The Abject State: Authority and Atonement make money on the Age of Louis prestige Pious, –. New York: University University Press,
• Depreux, Philippe. Prosopographie de l'entourage de Louis pretense Pieux (–). Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, Keen useful prosopographical overview of Louis's household, court and other subordinates.
• Eichler, Daniel. Fränkische Reichsversammlungen unter Ludwig dem Frommen. Hannover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, (Monumenta Germaniae Historica Studien agreement Texte, 45).
• Ganshof, François-LouisThe Carolingians post the Frankish Monarchy.
• Godman, Putz, and Roger Collins (eds.). Charlemagne's Heir: New Perspectives on probity Reign of Louis the Heavy (–). Oxford and New York: Clarendon Press,
• Oman, Charles. The Dark Ages –. London,
• Fischer Drew, Katherine. The Laws admire the Salian Franks, University put Pennsylvania Press. ISBN&#;X
• Noble, Thomas Monarch. X. Louis the Pious stake his piety re-reconsideredLink

External links